SYSTEM THEORY - GODLESSNESS WORLD

THIS ALL STARTED WITH TAKING PRAYER OUT OF SCHOOLS IN THE 60S AND BRAINWASHING THE KIDS BY NEW AGE ONE WORLD POLITICAL,ECONOMIC,RELIGIOUS OCCULT AGAINST GODS WORD BELIEFS.SATAN KNOWS IF YOU CAN TAKE THE GOSPEL MESSAGE OUT OF KIDS LIVES AND REPLACE IT WITH WE ARE GODS IN OUR LIFE NEW AGE HOGWASH YOU CAN GET GOD (JESUS)OUT OF THE WORLD.BUT NOW SATAN AND HIS DEMONIC DEVILS HAVE INFILTRATED THE CHURCH WITH THE NEW AGE MESSAGE AND THIS IS THE FINAL PUSH TO ELIMINATE JESUS' SAVING GRACE MESSAGE BY SATAN REPLACING IT WITH NEW AGE OCCULT WE ARE GODS DOCTRINES OF DEMONS.

WELL TRUE CHRISTIANS KNOW THAT ITS ONLY THE BLOOD OF JESUS THAT TAKES AWAY OUR SINS AND WE CAN NOT SAVE OURSELVES FROM HELL.THANK GOD(JESUS)THE KING OF ISRAEL AND THE WORLD THAT HIS WORD WILL PREVAIL AND SATAN AND HIS FOLLOWERS WILL BE THE ONES THAT ARE CAST INTO AND BURN IN THE LAKE OF FIRE FOREVER FOR BELIEVING LIES INSTEAD OF TRUTH THAT JESUS IS THE ONLY WAY TO SALVATION,NO OTHER.

WE CAN SEE ALL THE BEGGININGS OF GODS PROPHECIES BEING FULFILLED IN QUICK SUCCESSION NOW SO JESUS WILL ANYTIME NOW BE COMING IN THE CLOUDS TO TAKE THE TRUE CHRISTIANS WITH HIM TO HEAVEN FOR THE 7 YEAR TRIBULATION OF 21 JUDGEMENTS THAT CULMINATE IN WW3 AND KILL 4 BILLION PEOPLE.OR 1/2 EARHS POPULATION).THEN WE WILL SEE WHILE THE JUDGEMENTS ARE HITTING THE EARTH IF THESE GODLESS STILL BELIEVE SATANS LIES THAT WE ARE GODS AND THERE IS NO GOD WE HAVE TO GIVE ACCOUNT OF OUR LIVES TO.

WE KNOW THE BIBLE SAYS MILLIONS UPON MILLIONS WILL CHANGE WHILE THE JUDGEMENTS ARE HITTING THE EARTH.SATANS LIES WILL BE EXPOSED BY GODS POWER AND MULTITUDES WILL BE SAVED BY THE PREACHING OF ELIJAH,MOSES AND THE 144,000 JEWISH EVANGELISTS AS WELL AS ALL THE OTHER CHRISTIANS THAT ARE CONVERTED DURING THIS HELL ON EARTH PERIOD.THE BIGGEST DIFFERENCE FROM NOW AND THEN IS TODAY WE ARE NOT AS PERSECUTED AS THE CONVERTED DURING THE 7 YR TRIBULATION PERIOD.DURING THIS PERIOD OF HELL ON EARTH CONVERTED CHRISTIANS WILL BE BEHEADED FOR THEIR FAITH.SO MULTITUDES WILL BE BEHEADED FOR BELIEVING IN JESUS' SALVATION AND THAT JESUS IS THE ONLY WAY TO SALVATION.YOU CHOOSE NOW TO ACCEPT CHRIST IN YOUR HEART BECAUSE THE SECOND YOU DIE YOUR IN HELL.YOU CAN ONLY CHOOSE SALVATION WHILE YOUR HERE ON EARTH.YOU CHOOSE WERE YOU WANT TO SPEND ETERNITY (THATS FOREVER)WITH JESUS HERE ON EARTH AFTER THE 7 YEAR TRIBULATION PERIOD OR YOU CHOOSE SATAN AND HIS LIES AND SPEND ETERITY (THAT FOREVER)BURNING IN THE LAKE OF FIRE MADE FOR SATAN AND HIS ANGELS AND FOLLOWERS.YOOOOOOU CHOOOOOOOOSSSSSEEE.CHOOSE KING JESUS THE LAMB AND LIGHT AND TRUTH.

JOHN LOEFFLERS OTHER SHOWS IN THIS SERIES.
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The world is passing through profound paradigm shifts rights now so we're planning to hyperfocus on just a couple of key items this weekend.First John produces an extended boralogue on the new emerging global economic system and a vocabulary emerging from the G20 summit, including transnationalism and responsible sovereignty. What does it all mean? One of those G20 phrases is -- surprise surprise -- the time-tried new world order.So does this mean all our politicians are now conspiracy theorists? Perhaps an examination of the 100-year history of that expression would be in order. We'll run clips from a Steel on Steel show from 14 years ago.Then historian Dr. Dennis Cuddy, author of The New World Order and the Road to Socialism,returns to check on what the globalists are cooking up in the midst of the universal economic crisis.
http://britanniaradio.blogspot.com/2009/04/cover-get-ready-for-world-currency.html#links

LOOKING BACKWARDS AT THE FUTURE
Once in a while it's important to look back to examine how well we saw the future from the past. Former Congressman Tom Tancredo of Colorado was a frequent Steel on Steel guest long before he became a controversial congressional figure regarding border security. Tom returns to the show to discuss everything from politics to education to how Americans see themselves.Quite a few bills are roaring through congress right now, which will radically change economic life, but they're receiving scant attention. One of those is HR699, which will virtually shut down mining in this country overnight if passed. Dave Morgan from the Silver Investor Newsletter (www.silver-investor.com) and Bob Hopper, President of the Bunker Hill Silver Mine in Idaho, join us.In the light of major paradigm shifts underway, we'll continue a thread begun a few weeks ago. Since government social programs are virtually bankrupt, churches need to anticipate now how they will handle the needs of elderly members in their congregations. Julie Garron is a creative woman, who sees the train wreck coming, and is already underway toward achieving that goal.John's boralogue addresses why jettisoning or ignoring laws in the name of helping the people in a crisis is a bad idea. John cites examples from the French Revolution, the Bolshevik Revolution and Nazi Germany to show why that only leads to serious mischief.
http://britanniaradio.blogspot.com/2009/04/04042009-looking-backwards-at-future.html#links

Revolutionary Change the Alinsky Way
People seem confused by many of President Obama's actions. However, if they take time to examine the Alinsky method of community change, things would become much clearer. So we'll do that for the first part of the program as Brannon Howse (www.christianworldviewnetwork.com) tells us who Saul Alinksy was, what he stood for and the revolutionary (sic) method of social change he designed.Then John updates listeners on the death of the American dollar as the world gravitates toward a global currency. This is followed by resuming the Middle East thread with a review of former President Jimmy Carter's new book to see what impact this line of thought will have on efforts to restart a peace process. Dexter van Zile from Camera (www.camera.org) joins the show.John's boralogue starts a new thread on the emerging global religious paradigm, which will have compromise as a core value.
http://britanniaradio.blogspot.com/2009/03/click-to-listen-later-revolutionary.html#links

Plumbing the Depths
Happy spring in the northern hemisphere. Happy fall in the southern hemisphere.
People seem to be confused about efforts to restart the economy. Much of government's action seems contradictory or self-defeating. The show boots with an analysis of three levels at which government now functions in the midst of the economic maelstrom.

Level three leads us into first guest John Bolton, former Ambassador to the United Nations during the Bush administration, who warns of an emerging war on sovereignty, where transnationalists use the global crisis to create supra-national structures that will transfer sovereignty to them. Notable among these is the call for a new global currency.Then our Middle East thread reopens to continue a strategic picture of the next showdown; who the players are and how it affects us, particularly in the area of energy. Professor Clare Lopez from the from the Centre for Counterintelligence and Security Studies (www.intelligencesummit.org) guests.John concludes the show with a report on the push toward a global currency.
http://britanniaradio.blogspot.com/2009/03/john-loeffler-steel-on-steel-must.html#links

The Middle East Chessboard
As the United States focuses on its economic problems, the Middle East chessboard slides toward an increasingly inevitable nuclear showdown between Israel and Iran. Is anyone watching? John's boralogue sizes up the geopolitics under way in that part of the world. Then Jonathan Schanzer (www.jewishpoliycenter.org) joins the show. Part of the conversation concentrates on what's at stake for the world energy markets.

Congress is doing its best to kill the economy totally. A horrible bill is under way, which would virtually shut down mining in the country. We'll hit that one next week. Meanwhile this week, a massive lands bill (S. 22) failed the old fashioned frontal assault; an effort to force passage under special rules with virtually no debate. It's a massive compendium of more than 170 smaller bills. John picks one section having serious unintended consequences for campers and national park users. You could be thrown in jail for five years just for picking up a rock in a national park.

Conservatives are saying President Obama is a socialist. He says not. Who better to decide than the revolutionary Marxist Saul Alinksy, author of Rules for Radicals? Barack Obama used to train people in the Alinsky method, so we read parts of the play book.
http://britanniaradio.blogspot.com/2009/03/03142009-middle-east-chessboard-click.html#links

04/18/2009 General Systems Theory and You

The last few weeks we've pursued a path through Saul Alinksy's philosophy, the new emerging global paradigm and the history of trasnationalism. Today we'll tie those threads together in a common philosophy linking all three branches -- religious, economic and political -- of global society. It's called General Systems Theory. Most people are unaware of it but it is the driving force of your future. Mitch Wright guests.John's extended boralogue reviews this week's tea party events in the light of the right to freedom of speech and what this means for the media wars which have erupted in this country.

JOHN LOEFFLER ON SYSTEM THEORY
http://britanniaradio.blogspot.com/2009/04/systems-theory-systems-theory-is.html#links

Systems theory APR 18,09

Systems theory is an interdisciplinary field of science and the study of the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science. More specifically, it is a framework by which one can analyze and/or describe any group of objects that work in concert to produce some result. This could be a single organism, any organization or society, or any electro-mechanical or informational artifact.Systems theory first originated in biology in the 1920s out of the need to explain the interrelatedness of organisms in ecosystems.[1] As a technical and general academic area of study it predominantly refers to the science of systems that resulted from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (GST), among others, in initiating what became a project of systems research and practice. It was Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson who developed interdisciplinary perspectives in systems theory (such as positive and negative feedback in the social sciences).

Overview

Margaret Mead was an influential figure in systems theory.Ideas from systems theory have grown with diversified areas, exemplified by the work of Béla H. Bánáthy, ecological systems with Howard T. Odum, Eugene Odum and Fritjof Capra, organizational theory and management with individuals such as Peter Senge, interdisciplinary study with areas likeHuman Resource Development from the work of Richard A. Swanson, and insights from educators such as Debora Hammond. As a transdisciplinary, interdisciplinary and multiperspectival domain, the area brings together principles and concepts from ontology, philosophy of science, physics, computer science,biology, and engineering as well as geography, sociology, political science, psychotherapy (within family systems therapy) and economics among others. Systems theory thus serves as a bridge for interdisciplinary dialogue between autonomous areas of study as well as within the area of systems science itself.In this respect, with the possibility of misinterpretations, Bertalanffy [2] believed a general theory of systems should be an important regulative device in science, to guard against superficial analogies that are useless in science and harmful in their practical consequences.Others remain closer to the direct systems concepts developed by the original theorists. For example, Ilya Prigogine, of the Center for Complex Quantum Systems at the University of Texas, Austin, has studied emergent properties, suggesting that they offer analogues for living systems. The theories of autopoiesis of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana are a further development in this field. Important names in contemporary systems science include Russell Ackoff, Béla H. Bánáthy, Anthony Stafford Beer, Peter Checkland, Robert L. Flood, Fritjof Capra, Michael C. Jackson, and Werner Ulrich, among others.With the modern foundations for a general theory of systems following the World Wars, Ervin Laszlo, in the preface for Bertalanffy's bookPerspectives on General System Theory, maintains that the translation of general system theory from German into English has wrought a certain amount of Havoc [3]. The preface explains that the original concept of a general system theory was Allgemeine Systemtheorie (or Lehre), pointing out the fact that Theorie (or Lehre) just as Wissenschaft(translated Scholarship),has a much broader meaning in German than the closest English words theory and science [3]. With these ideas referring to an organized body of science and any systematically presented set of concepts, whether they are empirical, axiomatic, or philosophical, Lehre is associated with theory and science in the etymology of general systems, but also does not translate from the German very well; teaching is the closest equivalent [3]. While many of the root meanings for the idea of a general systems theory might have been lost in the translation and many[who?] were led to believe that the systems theorists had articulated nothing but a pseudoscience, systems theory became a nomenclature that early investigators used to describe the interdependence of relationships in organization by defining a new way of thinking about science and scientific paradigms.

A system from this frame of reference is composed of regularly interacting or interrelating groups of activities. For example, in noting the influence in organizational psychology as the field evolved from an individually oriented industrial psychology to a systems and developmentally oriented organizational psychology,it was recognized that organizations are complex social systems; reducing the parts from the whole reduces the overall effectiveness of organizations [4]. This is at difference to conventional models that center on individuals, structures, departments and units separate in part from the whole instead of recognizing the interdependence between groups of individuals, structures and processes that enable an organization to function. Laszlo [5] explains that the new systems view of organized complexity went one step beyond the Newtonian view of organized simplicity in reducing the parts from the whole, or in understanding the whole without relation to the parts. The relationship between organizations and their environments became recognized as the foremost source of complexity and interdependence. In most cases the whole has properties that cannot be known from analysis of the constituent elements in isolation. Béla H. Bánáthy, who argued - along with the founders of the systems society - that the benefit of humankind is the purpose of science, has made significant and far-reaching contributions to the area of systems theory. For the Primer Group at ISSS, Bánáthy defines a perspective that iterates this view:The systems view is a world-view that is based on the discipline of SYSTEM INQUIRY. Central to systems inquiry is the concept of SYSTEM. In the most general sense, system means a configuration of parts connected and joined together by a web of relationships. The Primer group defines system as a family of relationships among the members acting as a whole. Bertalanffy defined system as elements in standing relationship.[6]Similar ideas are found in learning theories that developed from the same fundamental concepts, emphasizing that understanding results from knowing concepts both in part and as a whole. In fact, Bertalanffy’s organismic psychology paralleled the learning theory of Jean Piaget [7]Interdisciplinary perspectives are critical in breaking away from industrial age models and thinking where history is history and math is mathsegregated from the arts and music separate from the sciences and never the twain shall meet [8]. The influential contemporary work of Peter Senge [9] provides detailed discussion of the commonplace critique of educational systems grounded in conventional assumptions about learning, including the problems with fragmented knowledge and lack of holistic learning from the machine-age thinking that became a model of school separated from daily life.It is in this way that systems theorists attempted to provide alternatives and an evolved ideation from orthodox theories with individuals such as Max Weber, Emile Durkheim in sociology and Frederick Winslow Taylor in scientific management, which were grounded in classical assumptions [10]. The theorists sought holistic methods by developing systems concepts that could be integrated with different areas.

The contradiction of reductionism in conventional theory (which has as its subject a single part) is simply an example of changing assumptions. The emphasis with systems theory shifts from parts to the organization of parts, recognizing interactions of the parts are not static and constant but dynamic processes. Conventional closed systems were questioned with the development of open systemsperspectives. The shift was from absolute and universal authoritative principles and knowledge to relative and general conceptual andperceptual knowledge [11], still in the tradition of theorists that sought to provide means in organizing human life. Meaning, the history of ideasthat preceded were rethought not lost. Mechanistic thinking was particularly critiqued, especially the industrial-age mechanistic metaphor of the mind from interpretations of Newtonian mechanics by Enlightenment philosophers and later psychologists that laid the foundations of modern organizational theory and management by the late 19th century [12]. Classical science had not been overthrown, but questions arose over core assumptions that historically influenced organized systems, within both social and technical sciences.


History
TIMELINE
1820-1903 Herbert Spencer
1882-1950 Nicolai Hartmann
1848-1923 Vilfredo Pareto
1858-1917 Emile Durkheim
1922 Alexander Bogdanov publishes Tectology in Russian (German translation 1928, English 1980)
1929-1951 Robert Maynard Hutchins, University of Chicago
1946-1953 Macy conferences
1948 Norbert Wiener publishes Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine
1955 W. Ross Ashby publishes Introduction to Cybernetics
1956 Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Anatol Rapoport,Ralph W. Gerard, Kenneth Boulding establish Society for the Advancement of General Systems Theory.
1968 Ludwig von Bertalanffy publishes General System theory: Foundations, Development, Applications
1970-1980s Second-order cybernetics developed byHeinz von Foerster, Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana and others
1970s Catastrophe theory (René Thom, E.C. Zeeman) Dynamical systems in mathematics.
1980s Chaos theory David Ruelle, Edward Lorenz, Mitchell Feigenbaum, Steve Smale, James A. Yorke
1986 Context theory Anthony Wilden
1988 International Society for Systems Science
1990 Complex adaptive systems (CAS) John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann, Harold Morowitz, W. Brian Arthur

Whether considering the first systems of written communication with Phoeniciancuneiform to Mayan numerals, or the feats of engineering with the Egyptian pyramids, systems thinking in essence dates back to antiquity. Differentiated from Western rationalist traditions of philosophy, C. West Churchman often identified with the I Ching as a systems approach sharing a frame of reference similar topre-Socratic philosophy and Heraclitus [13]. Bertalanffy traced systems concepts to the philosophy of G.W. von Leibniz and Nicholas of Cusa's Coincidentia Oppositorum. While modern systems are considerably more complicated, today's systems are embedded in history.

Systems theory as an area of study specifically developed following the World Wars from the work of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Anatol Rapoport, Kenneth E. Boulding, William Ross Ashby, Margaret Mead, Gregory Bateson, C. West Churchman and others in the 1950s, specifically catalyzed by the Macy conferences. Cognizant of advances in science that questioned classical assumptions in the organizational sciences, Bertalanffy's idea to develop a theory of systems began as early as the interwar period, publishing An Outline for General Systems Theory in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol 1, No. 2, by 1950. Where assumptions in Western science from Greek thought with Plato and Aristotle to Newton's Principia have historically influenced all areas from the hard to social sciences (see David Easton's seminal development of the political system as an analytical construct), the original theorists explored the implications of twentieth century advances in terms of systems.Subjects like complexity, self-organization, connectionism and adaptive systemshad already been studied in the 1940s and 1950s.In fields like cybernetics, researchers like Norbert Wiener, William Ross Ashby, John von Neumann andHeinz von Foerster examined complex systems using mathematics. John von Neumann discovered cellular automata and self-reproducing systems, again with only pencil and paper. Aleksandr Lyapunov and Jules Henri Poincaré worked on the foundations of chaos theory without any computer at all. At the same timeHoward T. Odum, the radiation ecologist, recognised that the study of general systems required a language that could depict energetics and kinetics at any system scale. Odum developed a general systems, or Universal language, based on the circuit language of electronics to fulfill this role, known as the Energy Systems Language. Between 1929-1951, Robert Maynard Hutchins at theUniversity of Chicago had undertaken efforts to encourage innovation and interdisciplinary research in the social sciences, aided by the Ford Foundation with the interdisciplinary Division of the Social Sciences established in 1931 (Hammond 2003: 5-9). Numerous scholars had been actively engaged in ideas before (Tectology of Alexander Bogdanov published in 1912-1917 is a remarkable example), but in 1937 Bertalanffy presented the general theory of systems for a conference at the University of Chicago.

The systems view was based on several fundamental ideas. First, all phenomena can be viewed as a web of relationships among elements, or a system. Second, all systems, whether electrical, biological, or social, have common patterns, behaviors, and properties that can be understood and used to develop greater insight into the behavior of complex phenomena and to move closer toward a unity of science. System philosophy, methodology and application are complementary to this science [3]. By 1956, the Society for General Systems Research was established, renamed the International Society for Systems Science in 1988. The Cold War had its affects upon the research project for systems theory in ways that sorely disappointed many of the seminal theorists. Some began to recognize theories defined in association with systems theory had deviated from the initial General Systems Theory (GST) view (Hull 1970). The economist Kenneth Boulding, an early researcher in systems theory, had concerns over the manipulation of systems concepts. Boulding concluded from the effects of the Cold War that abuses of power always prove consequential and that systems theory might address such issues [14]. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been a renewed interest in systems theory with efforts to strengthen an ethical view.

Developments in system theories

General systems research and systems inquiry Many early systems theorists aimed at finding a general systems theory that could explain all systems in all fields of science. The term goes back to Bertalanffy's book titled General System theory: Foundations, Development, Applications from 1968[7]. von Bertalanffy's objective was to bring together under one heading the organismic science that he had observed in his work as a biologist. His desire was to use the word system to describe those principles which are common to systems in general. In GST, he writes:...there exist models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relationships or forces between them. It seems legitimate to ask for a theory, not of systems of a more or less special kind, but of universal principles applying to systems in general.[15]Ervin Laszlo [16] in the preface of von Bertalanffy's book Perspectives on General System Theory.. [17]Thus when von Bertalanffy spoke of Allgemeine Systemtheorie it was consistent with his view that he was proposing a new perspective, a new way of doing science. It was not directly consistent with an interpretation often put on general system theory, to wit, that it is a (scientific) theory of general systems.To criticize it as such is to shoot at straw men. Von Bertalanffy opened up something much broader and of much greater significance than a single theory (which, as we now know, can always be falsified and has usually an ephemeral existence): he created a new paradigm for the development of theories.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy outlines systems inquiry into three major domains: Philosophy, the Science, and Technology. In his work with the Primer Group, Béla H. Bánáthy generalized the domains into four integratable domains of systemic inquiry: Philosophy, the ontology, epistemology, and axiology of systems;Theory, a set of interrelated concepts and principles applying to all systems;Methodology, the set of models, strategies, methods, and tools that instrumentalize systems theory and philosophy; and Application, the application and interaction of the domains.
These operate in a recursive relationship, he explained. Integrating Philosophy and Theory as Knowledge, and Method and Application as action, Systems Inquiry then is knowledgeable action.[18]

Cybernetics
Main article: Cybernetics

Cybernetics is the study of feedback and derived concepts such as communication and control in living organisms, machines and organisations. Its focus is how anything (digital, mechanical or biological) processes information, reacts to information, and changes or can be changed to better accomplish the first two tasks. Originally, the term cybernetics derives from a Greek word that meant a helmsman.The terms systems theory and cybernetics have been widely used as synonyms. Some authors use the term cybernetic systems to denote a proper subset of the class of general systems, namely those systems that include feedback loops. However Gordon Pask's differences of eternal interacting actor loops (that produce finite products) makes general systems a proper subset of cybernetics. According to Jackson (2000), Bertalanffy promoted an embryonic form of general system theory (GST) as early as the 1920s and 1930s but it was not until the early 1950s it became more widely known in scientific circles.

Threads of cybernetics began in the late 1800s that led toward the publishing of seminal works (eg., Wiener's Cybernetics in 1948 and von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory in 1968).Cybernetics arose more from engineering fields and GST from biology. If anything it appears that although the two probably mutually influenced each other, cybernetics had the greater influence. Bertalanffy (1969) specifically makes the point of distinguishing between the areas in noting the influence of cybernetics: Systems theory is frequently identified with cybernetics and control theory. This again is incorrect. Cybernetics as the theory of control mechanisms in technology and nature is founded on the concepts of information and feedback, but as part of a general theory of systems;then reiterates: the model is of wide application but should not be identified with systems theory in general, and that warning is necessary against its incautious expansion to fields for which its concepts are not made.(17-23). Jackson (2000) also claims Bertalanffy was informed by Alexander Bogdanov's three volume Tectology that was published in Russia between 1912 and 1917, and was translated into German in 1928. He also states it is clear to Gorelik (1975) that the conceptual part of general system theory (GST) had first been put in place by Bogdanov. The similar position is held by Mattessich (1978) and Capra (1996). Bertalanffy never even mentioned Bogdanov in his works, which Capra (1996) finds surprising.Cybernetics, catastrophe theory, chaos theory and complexity theory have the common goal to explain complex systems that consist of a large number of mutually interacting and interrelated parts in terms of those interactions. Cellular automata (CA), neural networks (NN), artificial intelligence (AI), and artificial life (ALife) are related fields, but they do not try to describe general (universal) complex (singular) systems. The best context to compare the different C-Theories about complex systems is historical, which emphasizes different tools and methodologies, from pure mathematics in the beginning to pure computer science now. Since the beginning of chaos theory when Edward Lorenz accidentally discovered a strange attractor with his computer, computers have become an indispensable source of information. One could not imagine the study of complex systems without the use of computers today.

Complex adaptive systems
Main article: Complex adaptive systems

Complex adaptive systems are special cases of complex systems. They are complex in that they are diverse and made up of multiple interconnected elements and adaptive in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. The term complex adaptive systems was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute (SFI), by John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others. However, the approach of the complex adaptive systems does not not take account in adoption of information which enables people to use it.CAS ideas and models are essentially evolutionary, and they take ground in the modern biological views on adaptation and evolution. Accordingly, the theory of complex adaptive systems bridges developments of the system theory with the ideas of 'generalized Darwinism', which suggests that Darwinian principles of evolution are capable to explain a range of complex material phenomena, from cosmic to social objects.

Applications of system theories

Living systems theory
Main article: Living systems theory

Living systems theory is an offshoot of Bertalanffy's general systems theory, created by James Grier Miller, which was intended to formalize the concept of life. According to Miller's original conception as spelled out in his magnum opus Living Systems, a living system must contain each of 20 critical subsystems, which are defined by their functions and visible in numerous systems, from simple cells to organisms, countries, and societies. In Living Systems Miller provides a detailed look at a number of systems in order of increasing size, and identifies his subsystems in each.James Grier Miller (1978) wrote a 1,102-page volume to present his living systems theory. He constructed a general theory of living systems by focusing on concrete systems—nonrandom accumulations of matter-energy in physical space-time organized into interacting, interrelated subsystems or components. Slightly revising the original model a dozen years later, he distinguished eight nested hierarchical levels in such complex structures. Each level is nested in the sense that each higher level contains the next lower level in a nested fashion.

Organizational theory

Kurt Lewin attended the Macy conferencesand is commonly identified as the founder of the movement to study groups scientifically.Main article: Organizational studies
The systems framework is also fundamental to organizational theory as organizations are complex dynamic goal-oriented processes. One of the early thinkers in the field was Alexander Bogdanov, who developed his Tectology, a theory widely considered a precursor of Bertalanffy's GST, aiming to model and design human organizations (see Mattessich 1978, Capra 1996). Kurt Lewin was particularly influential in developing the systems perspective within organizational theory and coined the term systems of ideology, from his frustration with behavioral psychologies that became an obstacle to sustainable work in psychology [19]. Jay Forrester with his work in dynamics and management alongside numerous theorists including Edgar Schein that followed in their tradition since the Civil Rights Era have also been influential.The systems to organizations relies heavily upon achieving negative entropy through openness and feedback. A systemic view on organizations is transdisciplinary and integrative. In other words, it transcends the perspectives of individual disciplines, integrating them on the basis of a common code, or more exactly, on the basis of the formal apparatus provided by systems theory. The systems approach gives primacy to the interrelationships, not to the elements of the system. It is from these dynamic interrelationships that new properties of the system emerge. In recent years, systems thinking has been developed to provide techniques for studying systems in holistic ways to supplement traditional reductionistic methods. In this more recent tradition, systems theory in organizational studies is considered by some as a humanistic extension of the natural sciences.

Software and computing

In the 1960s, systems theory was adopted by the post John Von Neumann computing and information technology field and, in fact, formed the basis of structured analysis and structured design (see also Larry Constantine, Tom DeMarco and Ed Yourdon). It was also the basis for earlysoftware engineering and computer-aided software engineering principles.By the 1970s, General Systems Theory (GST) was the fundamental underpinning of most commercial software design techniques, and by the 1980, W. Vaughn Frick and Albert F. Case, Jr. had used GST to design the missing link transformation from system analysis (defining what's needed in a system) to system design (what's actually implemented) using the Yourdon/DeMarco notation. These principles were incorporated into computer-aided software engineering tools delivered by Nastec Corporation, Transform Logic, Inc., KnowledgeWare (see Fran Tarkentonand James Martin), Texas Instruments, Arthur Andersen and ultimately IBM Corporation.

Sociology and Sociocybernetics
Main article: Sociology

Systems theory has also been developed within sociology. An important figure in the sociological systems perspective as developed from GST is Walter Buckley (who from Bertalanffy's theory). Niklas Luhmann (see Luhmann 1994) is also predominant in the literatures for sociology and systems theory. Miller's living systems theory was particularly influential in sociology from the time of the early systems movement. Models for dynamic equilibrium in systems analysis that contrasted classical views from Talcott Parsons and George Homas were influential in integrating concepts with the general movement. With the renewed interest in systems theory on the rise since the 1990s, Bailey (1994) notes the concept of systems in sociology dates back to Auguste Comte in the 19th century, Herbert Spencer and Vilfredo Pareto, and that sociology was readying into its centennial as the new systems theory was emerging following the World Wars. To explore the current inroads of systems theory into socioloigy (primarily in the form of complexity science) see sociology and complexity science.In sociology, members of Research Committee 51 of the International Sociological Association (which focuses on sociocybernetics), have sought to identify the sociocybernetic feedback loops which, it is argued, primarily control the operation of society. On the basis of research largely conducted in the area of education, Raven (1995) has, for example, argued that it is these sociocybernetic processes which consistently undermine well intentioned public action and are currently heading our species, at an exponentially increasing rate, toward extinction. See sustainability. He suggests that an understanding of these systems processes will allow us to generate the kind of (non common-sense) targeted interventions that are required for things to be otherwise - ie to halt the destruction of the planet.

System dynamics
Main article: System dynamics

System Dynamics was founded in the late 1950s by Jay W. Forrester of the MIT Sloan School of Management with the establishment of the MIT System Dynamics Group. At that time, he began applying what he had learned about systems during his work in electrical engineering to everyday kinds of systems. Determining the exact date of the founding of the field of system dynamics is difficult and involves a certain degree of arbitrariness. Jay W. Forrester joined the faculty of the Sloan School at MIT in 1956, where he then developed what is now System Dynamics. The first published article by Jay W. Forrester in the Harvard Business Review on Industrial Dynamics, was published in 1958. The members of System Dynamics Society have chosen 1957 to mark the occasion as it is the year in which the work leading to that article, which described the dynamics of a manufacturing supply chain, was done.As an aspect of systems theory, system dynamics is a method for understanding the dynamic behavior of complex systems. The basis of the method is the recognition that the structure of any system — the many circular, interlocking, sometimes time-delayed relationships among its components — is often just as important in determining its behavior as the individual components themselves. Examples are chaos theory andsocial dynamics. It is also claimed that, because there are often properties-of-the-whole which cannot be found among the properties-of-the-elements, in some cases the behavior of the whole cannot be explained in terms of the behavior of the parts. An example is the properties of these letters which when considered together can give rise to meaning which does not exist in the letters by themselves. This further explains the integration of tools, like language, as a more parsimonious process in the human application of easiest path adaptability through interconnected systems. One of the weaknesses of System dynamics is the fact that it does not pay attention much to dynamic causation in interelated entities.

Systems engineering
Main article: Systems Engineering

Systems Engineering is an interdisciplinary approach and means for enabling the realization and deployment of successful systems. It can be viewed as the application of engineering techniques to the engineering of systems, as well as the application of a systems approach to engineering efforts.[20] Systems Engineering integrates other disciplines and specialty groups into a team effort, forming a structured development process that proceeds from concept to production to operation and disposal. Systems Engineering considers both the business and the technical needs of all customers, with the goal of providing a quality product that meets the user needs.[21]

Systems psychology
Main article: Systems psychology

Systems psychology is a branch of psychology that studies human behaviour and experience in complex systems. It is inspired by systems theory and systems thinking, and based on the theoretical work of Roger Barker, Gregory Bateson, Humberto Maturana and others. It is an approach in psychology, in which groups and individuals, are considered as systems in homeostasis. Systems psychology includes the domain of engineering psychology, but in addition is more concerned with societal systems and with the study of motivatial, affective, cognitive and group behavior than is engineering psychology.[22] In systems psychology characteristics of organizational behaviour for example individual needs, rewards, expectations, and attributes of the people interacting with the systems are considered in the process in order to create an effective system.[23]. The Systems psychology includes in an illusion of homeostatic systems, although most of the living systems are in a continuous disequilibrium of various degrees.

References

^ Lawrence S. Bale (1995). Gregory Bateson, Cybernetics and the Social.Behavioral Sciences. Paper published in: Cybernetics and Human Knowing: a Journal of Second Order Cybernetics and Cyber-Semiotics. Vol. 3 no. 1 1995 pp. 27-45.
^ Bertalanffy (1950: 142)
^ a b c d (Laszlo 1974)
^ (Schein 1980: 4-11)
^ Laslo (1972: 14-15)
^ (Banathy 1997: ¶ 22)
^ a b 1968, General System theory: Foundations, Development, Applications, New York: George Braziller, revised edition 1976: ISBN 0-8076-0453-4
^ (see Steiss 1967; Buckley, 1967)
^ Peter Senge (2000: 27-49)
^ (Bailey 1994: 3-8; see also Owens 2004)
^ (Bailey 1994: 3-8)
^ (Bailey 1994; Flood 1997; Checkland 1999; Laszlo 1972)
^ (Hammond 2003: 12-13)
^ (Hammond 2003: 229-233)
^ (GST p.32)
^ perspectives_on_general_system_theory [ProjectsISSS]
^ von Bertalanffy, Ludwig, (1974) Perspectives on General System Theory Edited by Edgar Taschdjian. George Braziller, New York
^ main_systemsinquiry [ProjectsISSS]
^ (see Ash 1992: 198-207)
^ Thomé, Bernhard (1993). Systems Engineering: Principles and Practice of Computer-based Systems Engineering. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-93552-2.
^ INCOSE. What is Systems Engineering. Retrieved on 2006-11-26.
^ Lester R. Bittel and Muriel Albers Bittel (1978), Encyclopedia of Professional Management, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070054789, p.498.
^ Michael M. Behrmann (1984), Handbook of Microcomputers in Special Education. College Hill Press. ISBN 093301435X. Page 212.

Further reading

Ackoff, R. (1978). The art of problem solving. New York: Wiley.
Ash, M.G. (1992). Cultural Contexts and Scientific Change in Psychology: Kurt Lewin in Iowa.American Psychologist, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 198–207.
Bailey, K.D. (1994). Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis. New York: State of New York Press.
Bánáthy, B (1996) Designing Social Systems in a Changing World New York Plenum
Bánáthy, B. (1991) Systems Design of Education. Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publications
Bánáthy, B. (1992) A Systems View of Education. Englewood Cliffs: Educational Technology Publications. ISBN 0-87778-245-8
Bánáthy, B.H. (1997).A Taste of Systemics, The Primer Project, Retrieved May 14, (2007)
Bateson, G. (1979). Mind and nature: A necessary unity. New York: Ballantine
Bausch, Kenneth C. (2001) The Emerging Consensus in Social Systems Theory, Kluwer Academic New York ISBN 0-306-46539-6
Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1968). General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Applications New York: George Braziller
Bertalanffy, L. von. (1950).An Outline of General Systems Theory.British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, Vol. 1, No. 2.
Bertalanffy, L. von. (1955).An Essay on the Relativity of Categories.Philosophy of Science, Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 243–263.
Bertalanffy, Ludwig von. (1968). Organismic Psychology and Systems Theory. Worchester: Clark University Press.
Bertalanffy, Ludwig Von. (1974). Perspectives on General System Theory Edited by Edgar Taschdjian. George Braziller, New York.
Buckley, W. (1967). Sociology and Modern Systems Theory. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.
Mario Bunge (1979) Treatise on Basic Philosophy, Volume 4. Ontology II A World of Systems. Dordrecht, Netherlands: D. Reidel.
Capra, F. (1997). The Web of Life-A New Scientific Understanding of Living Systems, Anchor ISBN 978-0385476768
Checkland, P. (1981). Systems thinking, Systems practice. New York: Wiley.
Checkland, P. 1997. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Churchman, C.W. (1968). The systems approach. New York: Laurel.
Churchman, C.W. (1971). The design of inquiring systems. New York: Basic Books.
Corning, P. 1983) The Synergism Hupothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution. New York: McGraw Hill
Davidson, Mark. (1983). Uncommon Sense: The Life and Thought of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, Father of General Systems Theory. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, Inc.
Durand, D. La systémique, Presses Universitaires de France
Flood, R.L. 1999. Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning within the unknowable. London: Routledge.
Charles François. (2004). Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics, Introducing the 2nd Volume [1] and further links to the ENCYCLOPEDIA, K G Saur, Munich [2] see also [3] Kahn, Herman. (1956). Techniques of System Analysis, Rand Corporation Laszlo, E. (1995). The Interconnected Universe. New Jersey, World Scientific. ISBN 981-02-2202-5
François, C. (1999). Systemics and Cybernetics in a Historical Perspective Jantsch, E. (1980). The Self Organizing Universe. New York: Pergamon.
Gorelik, G. (1975) Reemergence of Bogdanov's Tektology in. Soviet Studies of Organization, Academy of Management Journal. 18/2, pp. 345–357
Hammond, D. 2003. The Science of Synthesis. Colorado: University of Colorado Press.
Hinrichsen, D. and Pritchard, A.J. (2005) Mathematical Systems Theory. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-44125-0
Hull, D.L. 1970. Systemic Dynamic Social Theory.Sociological Quarterly, Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp. 351–363.
Jackson, M.C. 2000. Systems Approaches to Management. London: Springer.
Klir, G.J. 1969. An Approach to General Systems Theory. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Ervin László 1972. The Systems View of the World. New York: George Brazilier.
Laszlo, E. (1972a). The systems view of the world. The natural philosophy of the new developments in the sciences. New York: George Brazillier. ISBN 0-8076-0636-7
Laszlo, E. (1972b). Introduction to systems philosophy. Toward a new paradigm of contemporary thought. San Francisco: Harper.
Laszlo, Ervin. 1996. The Systems View of the World. Hampton Press, NJ. (ISBN 1-57273-053-6).
Lemkow, A. (1995) The Wholeness Principle: Dynamics of Unity Within Science, Religion & Society. Quest Books, Wheaton.
Niklas Luhmann (1996),Social Systems,Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA
Mattessich, R. (1978) Instrumental Reasoning and Systems Methodology: An Epistemology of the Applied and Social Sciences. Reidel, Boston
Minati, Gianfranco. Collen, Arne. (1997) Introduction to Systemics Eagleye books. ISBN 0-924025-06-9
Odum, H. (1994) Ecological and General Systems: An introduction to systems ecology, Colorado University Press, Colorado.
Olmeda, Christopher J. (1998). Health Informatics: Concepts of Information Technology in Health and Human Services. Delfin Press. ISBN 0982144210
Owens, R.G. (2004). Organizational Behavior in Education: Adaptive Leadership and School Reform, Eighth Edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Pharaoh, M.C. (online). Looking to systems theory for a reductive explanation of phenomenal experience and evolutionary foundations for higher order thought Retrieved Dec.14 2007.
Schein, E.H. (1980). Organizational Psychology, Third Edition. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Peter Senge (1990). The Fifth Discipline. The art and practice of the learning organization. New York: Doubleday.
Senge, P., Ed. (2000). Schools That Learn: A Fifth Discipline Fieldbook for Educators, Parents, and Everyone Who Cares About Education. New York: Doubleday Dell Publishing Group.
Steiss, A.W. (1967). Urban Systems Dynamics. Toronto: Lexington Books.
Gerald Weinberg. (1975). An Introduction to General Systems Thinking (1975 ed., Wiley-Interscience) (2001 ed. Dorset House).
Wiener, N. (1967). The human use of human beings. Cybernetics and Society. New York: Avon.

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Systems categories Systems theory · Systems science · Systems scientists (Conceptual · Physical · Social)Systems Biological · Complex · Complex adaptive · Conceptual · Dynamical · Economical Database management system · Ecosystem · Formal · Global Positioning System · Human anatomy · Information systems ·Legal systems of the world · Living systems · Systems of measurement · Metric system · Multi-agent system · Nervous system · Nonlinearity ·Operating system · Physical system · Political system · Sensory system · Social structure · Solar System · Systems art Theoretical fields Chaos theory · Complex systems · Control theory · Cybernetics · Sociotechnical systems theory · Systems biology · System dynamics ·Systems ecology · Systems engineering · Systems psychology · Systems science · Systems theory Systems scientists Russell L. Ackoff · William Ross Ashby · Béla H. Bánáthy · Gregory Bateson · Richard E. Bellman · Stafford Beer · Ludwig von Bertalanffy ·Murray Bowen · Kenneth E. Boulding · C. West Churchman · George Dantzig · Heinz von Foerster · Jay Wright Forrester · George Klir ·Edward Lorenz · Niklas Luhmann · Humberto Maturana · Margaret Mead · Donella Meadows · Mihajlo D. Mesarovic · Howard T. Odum ·Talcott Parsons · Ilya Prigogine · Anatol Rapoport · Claude Shannon · Francisco Varela · Kevin Warwick · Norbert Wiener.